January 2026

Technological Advancements in Electrolyte Assessment

Hydration recommendations for the physically active population include replacing fluids according to sweat rate and electrolytes consistent with what’s lost via sweat.¹ Both sweat rate and electrolyte losses can vary widely across populations.^1,2 Ideal electrolyte balance requires a valid assessment of sweat-electrolyte concentrations. Since there are no sport drinks that replace all electrolytes,³ electrolyte losses need to be assessed. To quantify sweat-electrolyte concentration, the amount of minerals in sweat, accepted lab-based methods that have been utilized for years.² However, technology seems to be advancing rapidly with marketing claims of wearables being valid and reliable for sweat-electrolyte losses.^2,4-6 Microfluidic (small channels that collect sweat) patches, potentiometric (directly assess electric potential), colorimetric devices (assesses reaction with a reagent chemical) and wearable smart fabrics (that respond to concentration) with Bluetooth transmission of data to phone applications are currently available. If these smart devices correspond to valid and reliable measurements, then individuals could use them for assessment and to guide ideal replacement. Independent testing has yet to validate commercially-available wearable devices, and all rely on algorithms or estimates of sweat-electrolyte losses.²

“Comparing Whole Body Sweat Rate Estimates Between Commercial Sweat Patches And Body Mass Change Methods.” Jones et al, 2025. In an independent investigation, authors collected sweat from commercially-available Gatorade Gx patches and collected data from the associated iPhone app via photo upload. Then, the Gatorade Gx patch was compared to a corrected, body-mass loss estimate common in research. The commercially-available patch underestimated sweat rate by 28-78% compared to well-established lab-based sweat rate assessment. Caution should be used when applying data from these patches as a prescription for rehydration needs.

“An ultrastable wearable electrochemical sensor for prolonged monitoring of electrolyte loss and hydration.” Wang et al, 2025. This study describes the development of r-SENSER, a wearable sensor system designed for continuous monitoring of sweat electrolyte concentrations (Na⁺ and K⁺) and secretion rate. The device incorporates internal calibration and a semisolid electrolyte interface to improve stability and eliminate the need for manual recalibration. Validation during various physical activities demonstrated its potential for reliable hydration and electrolyte tracking in dynamic conditions. This prototype demonstrates potential for further development.

“Wireless flexible potentiometric microsensors for temperature-compensated sweat electrolyte monitoring.” Lee et al, 2025. This study presents a non-invasive wearable electrochemical sensing platform designed to monitor sweat electrolyte concentrations (e.g., Na⁺ and K⁺) in real time during physical activity. The system uses solid-state ion-selective electrodes and capillary-driven fluidics to collect and analyze sweat, with data stored locally and transmitted via Bluetooth. Software applies the data to programmed algorithms to estimate sweat rate and electrolyte concentration. On-body trials confirmed the device’s reliability, supporting its potential use in athletic performance monitoring and clinical applications such as cystic fibrosis.

“Sweating rate and sweat chloride concentration of elite male basketball players measured with a wearable microfluidic device versus the standard absorbent patch method.” Baker et al, 2022. Authors compared a wearable microfluidic sweat patch with the standard absorbent patch method in elite male basketball players. The patch collects sweat, quantifies chloride concentration, and estimates sodium concentration based on these data. Both patch methods resulted in similar outcomes for local sweating rate (LSR) and sweat chloride concentration, with no significant differences. Despite moderate failure rate (~25%), the microfluidic device accurately predicted whole-body sweating rate (WBSR) using smartphone-based algorithms. These findings support the microfluidic patch as a valid, less intrusive alternative for sweat testing in professional sports settings, including on tattooed skin.

“Evaluation of a wearable fabric-based sensor for accurate sodium determination in sweat during exercise.” Dyshko et al, 2023. The authors tested a functional absorbent material, not reliant on microchannels to collect sweat, that can be interwoven into fabrics and are also continuously monitoring. In this case, the sensor (embedded within fabric prototype), was connected with wires to a measurement device to quantify electrolyte concentration. Results demonstrated robust consistency and a valid indication of electrolyte concentration throughout exercise in the heat. This prototype (not currently available) has great potential for further development.

“A wearable sensor for the detection of sodium and potassium in human sweat during exercise.”Pirovano et al, 2020. The authors tested the SwEatch patch system that uses an embedded patch within clothing that uses potentiometric technology to quantify electric potential based on concentration. The system then transmits data to a computer or watch for display purposes. Testing included SwEatch application and 90 minutes of cycling exercise in the heat. Data were not compared from the device to criterion methods but used to quantify a detection of sweat and electrolytes. The system demonstrated good detection, but concentrations were below normal physiological values, showing that it likely underestimates sweat sodium and potassium concentrations.

National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for the Physically Active

Optimal Beverage Composition for Hydration in Athletes

Hydration and Athletic Performance with Dr. Stavros Kavouras | Performance That Matters Podcast

REFERENCES

1. McDermott BP, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, Cheuvront SN, Cooper L, Kenney WL, O’Connor FG, Roberts WO. National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Rehydration for the physically active. J Athl Train. 2017;52(9):811-895.

2. Baker LB, King MA, Keyes DM, Brown SD, Engel MD, Seib MS, Aranyosi AJ, Ghaffari R. Sweating rate and sweat chloride concentration of elite male basketball players measured with a wearable microfluidic device versus the standard absorbent patch method. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2022;32(5):342-349.

3. Smith J, Lansing C, Meredith A, Stedge HL. The effect of different sports beverages on rehydration among runners. J Athl Train. 2025;60(6S):S-150.

4. Jones LD, Higgins PS, Bello ML, Langford EL, Bishop SH, Ryan GA, Herron RL. Comparing whole body sweat rate estimates between commercial sweat patches and body mass change methods. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2025;57:576.

5. Wang C, He A, Han G, Veronica A, Wang X, Nyein HYY. An ultrastable wearable electrochemical sensor for prolonged monitoring of electrolyte loss and hydration. ACS Sens. 2025;10:4954-4962.

6. Lee J, Liberty LM, Soltis E, et al. Wireless flexible potentiometric microsensors for temperature-compensated sweat electrolyte monitoring. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2025;17:36345-36355. doi:10.1021/acsami.5c03558

This content was developed in part by Brendon McDermott, PhD, ATC and Rebecca Stearns, PhD, ATC and the NATA Foundation Educational Resources Committee.

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